PREMIÈRE : THE BRITISH EMPIRE

BRITISH COLONIAL EMPIRE

New imperialism : it refers to the policy and ideology of imperial expansion adopted by Europe's powers from around 1870 to 1914. It led to European nations competing fiercely for new territories.

 Indirect rule : a type of European colonial policy practiced by the British Empire, in which the local traditional leaders are incorporated into colonial administrative structure.

 White Dominion : A White Dominion is a self-governing state within the British Empire, whose population is made of colons of European origin ruling over native populations (Canada, New Zealand)

 The Commonwealth : Association of the Dominions and Great Britain, formalized by the statute of Westminster in 1931.

National Congress : Indian political party founded in 1885. It conducted major political campaign for self-rule and independence.

 Vocabulary

- colonial trade 

- a self-governing colony

- an overseas colonial possession

- a raw-material supplier : une colonie d'exploitation

- a settler colony : une colonie de peuplement

- a European settler : un colon européen

- Home-rule : autonomy

  THE BRITISH EMPIRE (1850 - 1914) : OUTLINES

Introduction

 KQ : Why did GB expand and how long did it maintain its domination?

I) British expansion

A°) Economic motives, political motives and a 'Civilizing mission'

Doc. 1 : Speech by Joseph Chamberlain, March 1897.

B°) How did Britain manage to impose its imperialism?

Case Study : Anglo-Zulu War

C°) A threat on world security

Doc 2. Fashoda Incident

II) Ruling the Empire 

A°) The largest Empire

B°) The Indirect Rule

C°) And Colonial Trade 

Conclusion

HOMEWORK : 

- David Livingstone's expeditions

TIME LINE : 

- 1857 : Indian mutiny

- 1867 : Canada first dominion

- 1877 : Victoria Empress of India

- 1879 : The Zulu war

- 1882 : Great Britain controls India

- 1898 : The Fashoda incident

- 1922 : Independence of Egypt

- 1930 : Campaign of civil disobedience in India

- 1931 : Independence of the dominions

- 1947 : Independence of India and Pakistan

- 1956 : Independence of Sudan

- 1957 : Independence of Ghana

- 1960s : independence of African colonies 

 LEARN MORE : 

- Gandhi, Richard Attenborough, 1982.

- Out of Africa, Sydney Pollack, 1985.- The Piano, Jane Campion, 1993.

THE BRITISH EMPIRE : LESSON

Introduction :

In the 19th century, all major European nations launched into colonial imperialism for political, ideological and economic motives. At the turn of the century, Britain ruled over the largest colonial Empire in the world. However, British domination started being challenged in India and then in Asia and Africa.

KQ : Why did GB expand and how long did it maintain its domination?

I) The British expansion

 A°) Economic motives, political motives and a 'Civilizing mission'

Doc. 1 : Speech by Joseph Chamberlain, March 1897.

'The sense of possession has given place to a different sentiment - the sense of obligation. We feel now that our rule over these territories can only be justified if we can show that it adds to the happiness and prosperity of the people, and I maintain that our rule does, and has, brought security and peace and comparative properity to countries that never knew these blessings before.

In carrying out this work of civilisation we are fulfulling what I believe to be our national mission, and we are finding scope for the exercise of those faculties and qualities which have made of us a great governing race. I do not say that our methods have been beyond reproach ; but I do say that in almost every instance in which the rule of the Queen has been established and the great Pax Britannica has been enforced, there has come with the greater security to life and property, and a material improvement in the condition of the bulk of the population. No doubt, in the first instance, when those conquests have been made, there has been bloodshed, there has been loss of life among the native populations, loss of still more precious lives among those who have been sent out to bring these countries into some kind of disciplined order, but it must be remembered that that is the condition of the mission we have to fulfill.'

Joseph Chamberlain (1836 - 1914), British Secretary of States for the Colonies, at the annual dinner of the Royal Colonial Institute, March 1897.

QUESTIONS :

1. Introduce the source.

2. What are the key words in his speech? According to him, what was the role of the United Kingdom in the colonies?

3. What problems does Chamberlain acknowledge here? How does he present them?

CORRECTION :  

Introduction : The British Empire was the largest empire in the world. It took up a quarter of the world's land surface. One quarter of the world's population lived in the British Empire. This is one reason why Britain, a small island nation, was the greatest power in the world in 1900. The native population in these countries outnumbered by far the British settlers, who yet lived in much more comfortable conditions and had much higher standard of living. The UK employed the natives to work in mines, fields, or as servants. Despite some rare rebellions, the relationships between the settlers and the natives were correct. This document is a primary source in which J. Chamberlain, British secretary of state for colonies and a key figure of British politics, addressed an audience made up of businessmen working in colonial trade. His aim was therefore not to convince them, but to back them up in their vision of what British policy in the colonies should be.

Therefore, what are the arguments used in the 19th century to justify colonial expeditions?

He expressed the idea of a civilizing mission (I) and the idea that colonization could also be benficial to the UK (II).

I) Colonizing for the benefit of the territories.

A°) 'It adds to the happiness and prosperity of the people'

- technical improvement (Infrastructures)

- Improving sanitary conditions (fighting epidemics)

- defending and protecting people against potential enemies (the burning of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre and traditional slavery). These two issues were often used to point out how much colonization could benefit foreign territories.

B°) It was a civilizing duty.

- The speech illustrates the idea that bringing happiness and prosperity to the natives was a duty. That's why Chamberlain used the words 'mission' and 'civilization'. It shows the alleged superiority of the British race.

- Chamberlain's speech describes British presence overseas as a moral duty totally selfless : no mention is made of the money earned by settlers and the British crown thanks to the exploitation of the land and the trade with colonies (l. 2 - 3).

C°) Chamberlain gives a very paternalistic vision of the relationships between races.

- It is based on the idea that there are inequalities between them, and that the Brirish race is superior to others.

- This can be explained by the fact that the speech was given in front of aristocrats and traders who ruled over India and colonies. He flattered them. And because of the historical background and notably Darwinism.

II) Colonization was also beneficial to GB

A°) Colonization had no drawbacks

- Chamberlain mentioned the human losses by the expeditions and wars. But minimized this negative aspect through the use of rethoric, insisting on the necessary sacrifies to fulfill a civilizing mission.

B°) 'Pax Britannica' will spread all over the world

- Thus implying that there are no limits to the development, power and glory of the UK which will conquer the world and improve it.

- Peace is beneficial to trade and British interests.

- The UK, a sea power, will dominate the seas and the world.

C°) This mission si supposed to develop the faculties of the 'great governing race'

- By facing difficulties British people will be even more virtuous.

- It is almost a naturalist and biological version of civilizations which strengthen, kick athletes, by exercizing.

Conclusion : The speech illustrates the idea of duty imposed on a superior race and the speaker wanted to convince an audience of patriotic businessmen that colonization was beneficial to UK. This very paternalistic vision can also be found in a text written by Rudyard Kipling and entitled 'the White Man's burden'.

A°) Economic motives, political motives and a 'Civilizing mission'

1. Economic motives

- Colonies are export outlets for European industries.

- They also supply the metropole with raw materials, tropical resources that are at the core of the second industrial revolution such as rubber or coper… In India, or Egypt, there are many settlers and many investments. Sometimes colonies challenge GB in an a sector for instance cotton cloth in India. But most of the time some private companies are given the right to exploite local resources and labor force. It looks like a plundering.

- As a matter GB invests a lot in its empire : 1913 47% of its capital is invested in the Empire. Most of the time, infrastructures are built such as railways, harbors…

2. Political motives

- At first, colonization was due to private initiatives : missionaries, merchants…

Livingstone's Zambezi expedition (1858 - 1864). A missionary of the London Missionary Society, David Livingstone (1813 - 1873) went on several expeditions to Africa from 1841 onwards. In 1856 - 1857, his return to Britain was greeted with enthusiasm and he became the archetypal Christian hero. During his last expedition around Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika, he got lost and was found by another renowned explorer, Henry m. Stanley. He died in Africa in 1873.

- But after 1880, European countries compete for colonies and wage war if necessary to rule a country. But rivalries between European countries increase. For instance the Fashoda incident in 1898.

➽ Colonies seemed to be the best weapon to fight against foreign competition. Colonization was justified by strategic concerns and prestige.

3. Civilizing mission

- GB was responsible for the well being of the native populations, who were deemed inferior. That's the 'burden of the white man'. The idea is that native people must be educated and christianized. As a matter of fact some diseases decreased : smallpox, leprosy, sleeping sickness… sanitary conditions improved. Then GB tried to develop a system of primary education. Some people even managed to study in the metropole. For instance Gandhi came to London to study law and became an attorney. In fact, acculturation could only be seen in upper classes.

 - The society is divided : natives and settlers did not mix. Even cities are segregated. English people lived in the new cities they had built : New Delhi 1931, in which you could find : state department buildings, clubs, theater, …

- Propaganda backed the colonial system. International exhibition such as the 1851 in London, gave an example of the superiority of the White man.

B°) How did Britain manage to impose its imperialism?

Case study : Anglo-Zulu War

SOURCE 1 : IMPOSING COLONIAL POWER BY FORCE : THE ZULU WAR (1879)

1817 - 1827 : 

Chief Shaka united Zulu tribes and submitted other tribes, creating a kingdom in Natal.

1837 : 

Natal was conquered by Dutch settlers, the Boers, driving the Zulus up the coast.

1847 :

The British conquered Natal, the Boers moved further north to Transvaal.

1866 : 

Diamonds discovered in Kimberley, on the Transvaal border.

1877 : 

The British annexed Transvaal, north of the Zulu Kingdom.

1878 :

The British picked up various border quarrels with the Zulu Chief Cetshwayo, then issued an ultimatum turned down by Cetshwayo.

1879 :

January : The British invaded Zululand

January 22 : British defeat at Isandlwana (1,300 casualties)

April : First Zulu defeat

July : The British army marched through Zululand and burned down the capital city.

Zululand divided among thirteen pro-British chiefs.

Creation of a Zululand Protectorate.

1887 :

Zululand made Crown Colony.

SOURCE 2 : Belligerents 

	British Empire	Zulu Kingdom
Commanders and leaders	Sir Henry Frere Frederic Thesiger Garnet Wolseley	Cetshwayo KaMpande Ntshingwayo Khoza Dabulamanzi kaMpande
Strength : 1rst invasion	15,000 :  - 6,000 British troops - 9,000 Africans 17 cannon 1 Gatling gun 1 rocket battery	35,000
Strength : 2nd invasion	25,000 - 16,000 British troops - 7,000 Natal natives - 2,000 civilians
Casualties and losses	1,727 killed 256 wounded	10,500 killed

Source 3 : The worse disaster of Britain’s colonial era : the battle of Isandlwana, 1885.

QUESTIONS :

1. What were the British interests over Zululand? Why were South African colonies so important to Britain from a strategic point of view?

2. What role did the Zulus play in the region? How are they represented in the painting? In what way does this match British ideas about native populations? 

2. What were the main steps of that war?

3. What were the consequences?

The war started on 11 January and ended 4 July 1879. The trigger was the assassination of two Zulu women chased and killed on the Natal British territory. Then two English engineers were arrested and roughly treated and then released. By themselves, these incidents were flimsy grounds upon which to found invasion of the Zululand. But in fact the British wanted to control  Africa from Cairo to The Cap because The Suez canal had just been opened. And to control that area means to control the route to India. To finish with they were very interested in diamonds. 

Taking the pretext of border disputes, the British sent a 20 - day ultimatum to the Zulu king knowing it could not be comply. 

The British troops invaded Zululand without authorization by the British government. On 22 January started the battle of Isandlwana. After a first defeat, modern equipped reinforcements arrived and the British launched an offensive on the Zululand. On 4 July the armies clashed at the Battle of Ulundi and the Zulus were defeated.

Aftermath : the Zulu army was dispersed and the king deposed. The country became a protectorate.

 C°) A threat on world security : the Fashoda Incident.

Document 1 : Fashoda

Document 2 : The Fashoda incident

"Egypt's dependency, the Sudan, was in the hands of a religious fanatic, the Madhi. The isolated Egyptian garrisons were evacuated, but not before General Charles Gordon had been killed at Khartoum (January 1885) after refusing to retreat. Eleven years later Lord Salisbury's Government sent Lord Kitchener, in command of the Egyptian army, to reconquer the Sudan and gain control of the Upper Nile. Kitchener defeated the Sudanese, but when he arrived at Fashoda (July 1898) he found a French flag flying. It was the work of Captain Marchand of the French army, who together with 7 officers and 120 native troops, had travelled nearly 5,000 kilometers from the Atlantic coast with orders to secure the Upper Sudan for France.  Kitchener and Marchand wisely referred the matter to their governments. While British and French newspapers flung insults at each other, Salisbury openly prepared for war. Realizing he was serious, the French reluctantly gave way and ordered Marchand to leave. A joint British and Egyptian government then ruled the Sudan."

R.J. Cootes, Britain since 1700, Longman Secondary Histories. 

Document 3 :  Fashoda in the French press

 QUESTIONS : 

1. Introduce the 3 sources

2. Where is Fashoda located? Why was Fashoda a bone of contention between the two European countries?

3. What were the outcomes of that militaro-diplomatic crisis?

4. Descibe the cartoon and analyze it. What feelings prevailed among the French public opinion?

GB, as many other European countries faced an economic crisis (1873 - 1896). Countries rushed into a race for colonies.

Context : The Mediterranean area became a strategic area after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. To control this new route to India, Great Britain occupied Egypt in 1882. As tensions were growing, The Berlin Conference (1884 - 1885) was held to adopt a policy of international co-operation which led to the carving-up of Africa. 

Yet, tensions between nations remained acute. For instance, Britain's project to build an empire stretching from The Cape to Cairo clashed with France's project to create a huge territorial expansion from Dakar to Djibouti.

It was a diplomatic victory for Great Britain. But the carving-up of Africa went on.

 - FASHODA : Up to the 1870's only 10% of Africa was nominally under the rule of the European power. But in the 1880's, spurred on the economic depression, most European countries took part in a race for territorial control in Africa. The Berlin Conference (1884 - 1885) mediated imperialistic competition among 14 colonial powers, defining "effective occupation" as a criterion for international recognition of colonial claims. In Africa the French wanted an uninterrupted link between the Niger River and the Nile, while the British wanted 'a Cape to Cairo' empire. In 1896, the French dispatched a force under captain Marchand to occupy Sudan at the same time the British general Kitchener was moving up the Nile to reach Khartoum. Tensions were extreme. But the French ordered Marchand to withdraw. In March 1899, the French and the British agreed that the source of the Nile and the Congo rivers should mark the frontier between their sphere of influence. It is considered by most historians to be the precursor of the Entente Cordiale.